The role of Private Security Organizations in crime prevention and homeland security management in Ghana

The study was to explore the play by Private Security Organizations in crime prevention and homeland security management in Ghana. The study used a descriptive design of the qualitative of which respondents from the various management of Private Security Organizations in Accra were targeted. Purposive sampling technique was employed to select 7 participants to form part of the study. Interview guide was used at the data collection instrument. Data from interviews were analysed thematically based on the research objectives. The study found that key security services provided by the PSOs included the four functions mandated by the laws of Ghana. Also, their operations basically covers; watching and guarding services, patrolling services, and escort services. PSOs follow some form laid down procedures and principles in recruiting and selecting employees. PSOs have some collaboration with the Ghana Police Service with regards to its mandate enshrined by the constitution of Ghana to prevent crime and protect lives and properties. However, the key challenges of the PSOs are financial constraints, inadequate logistics and resources, high cost of operations, poor perception of the general public on their roles in fighting against crime as well as protecting lives and properties. Therefore, the study recommended that various PSOs should come together to form some associations that can fight for their right and welfare of their members. Also, the government of Ghana through the Ministry of Interior and the Ghana Police Service should sponsor some of their activities such as training and workshops. Moreover, the government can support them in terms of vehicles or patrol cars and fueling allowances.


INTRODUCTION
One major responsibility of the state is provisioning of internal security and defense from external threats (Damian et al., 2000).According to John Stuart Mill, "security is the most vital of 806 JTUS, Volume 1 No. 8 September 2023 all interest and that security of a person and property are the first need of society" cited in (Acton & Baron, 2021).The provision of security was viewed as the most fundamental obligation and task of the state as the "Weberian state" was perceived to enjoy the monopoly of the legitimate use of force, implying that security is the defining feature of the state and its provision at the heart of the state (Weber, 1919).However, the conception and practice of security has changed over time largely because of the manner in which the state has performed its task of providing security to the general public and the growing private concern (Mbadlanyana et al., 2011).
Security from crime, fear and victimization at the state, local and personal levels is an important basis for economic and social development as noted in the United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Crime (Economic and Social Council resolution, 2002/13 Annex).Hence, an effectively secured society is viewed as the basis for sustainable peace and development as security is a necessity in every human society.The implication being that, its absence threatens the survival of individuals and their properties (Inyang & Abraham, 2014).
Protection of life and property has been an age-old need of human beings.Historically, two main factors warranted security consideration for human groups in earliest times: the need for communities to protect themselves from wild animals, and the need to tame aggressive cohunters of food and critical resources (Mutimer, 2010).In the late Mesolithic and throughout the Neolithic periods, during which simple farming and sedentary lifestyles had begun extensively, personal and communal security deepened because of emerging quests for social control and territoriality (Reith, 2004).
Crime prevention and policing efforts were deployed informally, as part of the natural social blend, without recourse to commercialization as completed today (Bradbury, 1992).
Substantiating in advance observation, Sjoberg (1960) revealed how the evolution of human societies and territorial preservation intensified Sjoberg, (2013), making cities major hubs for socio-economic activities.Describing prehistoric societies, Sjoberg recounted how they metamorphosed from folk-preliterate, feudal to pre-industrial and thereafter to industrial-urban communities (Sjoberg, 2013).The resulting transformation triggered the quest for greater resource control and spatial competition, bringing in its wake the much-felt need for personal and group security in the emergent cities. Growing communal insecurity elicited the formal establishment of police forces to render crime prevention and security services (Steenkamp, 2002).
According to Steenkamp, state-led policing intensified in the contemporary generation with numerous specialized police units, such as highway patrol, escort, railway, and special investigations divisions established to combat crime and secure the domestic environment of countries (Steenkamp, 2002).In Ghana, similar police divisions were established between 1904 and 1984 to combat crime and provide needed security services.They included the General, Escort, Mines, and Railway Police units; the Marine Division, the Criminal Investigation Department, the Police Reserves Unit, the Wireless and Communications Unit, the Women's Branch, the Armoured Car Squadron, and the Police College (GPS, 2016b).
Growing cities experience rapid increases in population, owing primarily to rural-urban migration (Turok, 2012) (Owusu & Oteng-Ababio, 2015).This is essentially termed urbanization (Songsore, 2003).The UN-Habitat (2006) report on World Cities projects that by 2025, eight West African countries (including Ghana) will have had, on average, 60 per cent of its population urbanized.At the current rate of change in percentage urbanization, Ghana is noted to have 1.33 per cent ( 2015) and projected to have 1.49 per cent (2025) urbanization rates (UN- Habitat, 2016) relatively high figures compared with the African regional rate of 1.08 per cent and the world's rate of 0.95 per cent (Habitat, 2013).In ancient Greece, a system of protection was evolved to protect the monarchy, in addition to the protection of highways leading into the cities.These practices have endured to adapt over the years as economic activity, technological development, and globalization produce more safety and security risks to both individuals and properties, necessitating increased safety and security measures (SSR, 2012).
Goddard (2001) opined, "a private security company as a registered civilian organization that specializes in contracting commercial services to domestic and foreign entities with the intent to protect personnel and humanitarian and industrial assets within the rule of applicable domestic law".(Abrahamsen & Williams, 2010) defined private security companies as the "companies whose aim is offering protection for protection of life and assets".According to Singer (2005), the general trend of globalization closer to privatization and outsourcing of government functions has JTUS, Volume 1 No. 8 September 2023 resulted in the privatization of security by government in order to further complement government effort in the protection of life and property of the citizens.
According to (Solomon et al., 2018), there is currently dynamics in the everyday robbery activities with technological advancement which require improvement in crime prevention efforts in Ghana couple with high technological advancement.Therefore, private security organizations that have become a major part of the Ghana economy can never be underrated (Abrahamsen & Williams, 2010).Moreover, of their reflections on the security situation in Ghana in separate research, the New Delhi-based CHRI, and the Accra-based African Security Dialogue and Research Centre (ASDR), were of the opinion that the unmet policing gap in Ghana calls for an all-handson-deck approach to dealing with crime prevention.This may translate into mainstreaming the private sector strategically to play a defined, complementary role in security provisioning in Ghana (ASDR, 2008;CHRI, 2007).
To reap this at the end, numerous studies have recommended the involvement of private security organizations (PSOs) to partner the efforts of the police in dealing with the menace of crime in Ghana (Abudu et al., 2013;Adjasi et al., 2008;Besada, 2016;Oduro et al., 2007).This intention is critical when juxtaposed with the reality of deficit police personnel amidst a growing population with unmet security and housing demands (Tankebe, 2009).It is at the backdrop of this that this study seeks to examining the role of private security organizations in preventing of crime in Ghana.

Statement of the Problem
One primary duty of the state is provisioning of internal security and defense from external threats (Damian et al., 2000).According to John Stuart Mill, "security is the most vital of all interest and that security of a person and property are the first need of society" (cited in Acton Burrow, 1972, 55).Crime is a common feature of human society (Detotto & Otranto, 2010).Indeed, there are several factors that compel people to commit crimes.In essence, crime is bound to occur whenever people gather, interact, or live together (Kubrin & Weitzer, 2003).Crime not only leads to material and immaterial costs for those who are victims, it also forces households, local communities, and national authorities to spend billions on its prevention (Martinez & Valenzuela, 2006;Hayward, 2007).Crime prevention is thus a conscious reaction to crime occurrence; be it at a personal or national level (Avant, 2005;Gerasimoski, 2013;Araine & Araine, 2015).
In modern times, the task of crime prevention and protection of the citizenry of a state, domestically, has generally fallen on state-run police services (Kelling & Wycoff, 2002;UNODC, 2014).Ghana, as a member of the committee of nations, also follows this natural convention of providing crime-prevention services and homeland security for its citizenry, through the GPS.The GPS was set up, as a public service, under Article 190 of the 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana.GPS has performed the role of crime prevention creditably for several decades, yet crime has persisted and become very sophisticated in Ghana (Amenenor, 2014, GPS, 2016).
In recent times, the insufficiency of the GPS has been diagnosed in numerous empirical researches in the areas of job stress (Gyamfi, 2014), shortages in operational logistics (Kwadjo, 2009;Tankebe, 2009;GSS & UNODC, 2010), insufficient police personnel and presence (Aning, 2006;CHRI, 2007;Braimah & Mbowura, 2014), and inadequate police stations to match fasturbanizing towns and cities in Ghana (CHF International Ghana, 2012;Oteng-Ababio, 2016).As noted by the CHRI ( 2007) and the CHF International Ghana (2012) in recent studies on police performance in Ghana, these lapses collectively tend to impair police performance in crime prevention in the country, and ultimately they affect public approval ratings for the service (Abudu et al., 2013).
The fulfillment testimonies of public-private partnership in security services and crime prevention around the globe serves as a yardstick for sister countries to employ such approach to harness the strength of private security with that of the public security to combat crime and deliver security services to the citizenry (Richards & Smith, 2007;UNODC, 2014).In view of this, some researchers recommend that Ghana could take this path to make up for public policing shortfalls (Abudu et al., 2013;Braimah & Mbowura, 2014).This may possibly complement the police, in shoring up policing and preventive measures, as occasioned by rapid urbanization and everincreasing security needs (CoESS, 2008;UNODC, 2014).This argument is held against the background that crime prevention and security management in a state is a shared responsibility

METHODS
The study was conducted for Private Security Organizations in Accra.This study employed a descriptive design of the qualitative approach which is interested in understanding the meaning people have constructed, that, how people make sense of world and the experiences they have in JTUS, Volume 1 No. 8 September 2023 the world (Merriam, 2009).Qualitative research is inductive in nature, and the researcher generally explores meanings and insights in a given situation (Strauss & Corbin, 2008;Levitt et al., 2017).
According to Creswell (2012), descriptive research designs help to gather information about the present and existing condition of a research parameter.Again, Creswell & Poth, (2016) emphasized that with the use of a descriptive research design, more emphasis is laid on describing rather than on judging or interpreting the process.A descriptive research is to portray an accurate profile of persons, events or situations (Robson, 2002).This aided the study to give a snapshot or describe the situation about how Private Security Organization collaborate with Ghana Police Service to provide security services to the citizens and companies.Descriptive study ensures rich in-depth understanding of valuable knowledge of the operations of Private Security Organizations towards security and peace development.
According to Saunders et al., (2015), population refers to the complete set of cases or group members that a researcher is interested in.In this study, the target population comprises all the management of Private Security Organizations in Accra.Due to the qualitative and the nature of the study, saturation was reached with the 10th participant of the study.Therefore, 10 participants were selected to form part of the study.Speziale et al., (2011)suggested that two to ten participants or until saturation is appropriate for a qualitative enquiry.Purposive sampling was adopted in selecting management members from various Private Security Organizations in Accra.
This technique helped the researcher to choose participants who were well informed about security issues and how Private Security Organizations collaborate with the Ghana Police in providing security services to the companies and citizens of Ghana.
Basically, primary sources of data were employed.The primary data was obtained from the responses and information from the interview guide administered to the selected management members of the Private Security Organizations in Accra.
The instrument for data collection was interview guide.Interview guide was developed by the researcher to assist in collection of appropriate and in-depth information from the study participants (Polit & Beck, 2010).The interview guide that was used for the study comprised mainly open-ended questions which were answered by the respondents with few closed-ended questions.These questions were based on the research objectives.
Ethics means conforming to accepted standards and being consistent with agreed principles of moral conduct (De Vos & Strydom, 2005).The study will complied with the ethical concerns and code of ethics.Ethical clearance or introductory letter was sought from the researcher' department of the University of Cape Coast in order to approve the topic as researchable by analysing the process and outcome of the study as more beneficial with minimize or without any harm on the respondents involved.
JTUS, Volume 1 No. 8 September 2023 811 In the first place, the researcher introduced himself without providing any false impressions.
Secondly, inform consent was sought from the respondents.This was achieved by explaining or informing them about the nature and the objectives of the study upon which they willingly accept to participate by providing relevant information.Moreover, the study observed respondents' rights of anonymity.It was further explained that names will withheld and will not attached to any report from the study.Finally, respondents will be accorded their right to confidentiality.
Information disclosed by respondents were used by the study for academic work only and not for any other purposes.
The researcher administered interview guide to the selected management of the selected Private Security Organizations in Accra.Appointment was book with these selected management members on their less busy schedule and favourable time for them.The interviews were conducted within two weeks; thus, a manager was interviewed within a day at their break period or less busy schedule.
Data from interviews conducted were transcribed verbatim.Salient features that were in line with the research questions and topics were compiled and coded.The study relied heavily on the recording of speech and writing of actions and pronouncements by the people being studied.
Therefore, recurring themes were identified and interpreted.Direct quotations or verbatim expressions of the participants formed an integral part of the analysis.This method allowed varied experiences to be shown, voices to be head and representations to be made (Smith, 2001).A structured procedure was used in analyzing the qualitative data.Convergences and divergences response were noted and interpreted accordingly.

Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
This section presents background information about the respondents' sex, age, marital status, position and number of years in service of the respondents.Seven management members of the various selected PSOs in Accra were used for the study.All these seven participants were males.Out of the 7 participants, 5 were married while 2 were single; 6 were Christians while a participant was a Muslim.Three (3) of the participants were within the ages of 35-40 and the four remaining were beyond 45 years old.All of them have worked in the security services for more than 8 years and therefore were aware of issues related to PSOs and its roles play in crime prevention in Ghana.

Type of security services provided by the PSOs
Objective one sought to identify the various security services provided by the PSOs in Accra.
Data were gathered from the participants through interviews conducted and the result is JTUS, Volume 1 No. 8 September 2023 presented subsequently.It was revealed that key security services provided by the PSOs included; provision of surveillance system, collaboration with the state security agencies for community protection, guard lives and properties.
This supports of the views and study of Bababusuyi, (2016), in her opinion on Damog Guards, drawing from her 19 years security industry experience, identified the six core functions of private security guards in ensuring the protection of lives and properties.She argued that Security guards are crime, threat and risk prevention officers assigned to protect specific people and property.So fundamentally, the job duties and responsibilities of a security guard are not the same as a peace officer or police officer.Instead, security guards are in the prevention business.
It is the job of a security guard to act as a deterrent to crime, to watch for impending danger and to report crimes they may encounter.These were confirm by some participants in their quotes: "we do a lot of security services.You know our work is to complement the Ghana Police Service.So virtually, we back them in most of their activities for effective security and crime prevention.We guard lives and properties of individuals and companies, we patrol or do surveillance and others".(IDI,Manager,46).
"Yes, we offer some crucial services to the general public.We normally guard people and organizations during programmes and even normal working days.Sometimes, we escort people who are special or businessmen who have a lot of money on them or use huge sums of money in their dealings."(IDI, Manager, 36) "For our services, it start from guarding people and lives through watching peoples' properties to escorting people.We do all those services for security purposes."(IDI, Manager, 50)

Operations of PSOs towards crime
Objective two was to examine the operational activities of PSOs towards combating crime in the society.The PSOs organize a lot of activities in quest to combat crime in the society and in the Central Business District.These activities include; watching and guarding services, patrolling services, and escort services.These were confirmed by all the participants.Also, this is in line with the legal framework of Ghana.All the participants confirm these operations as mandatory and executed by their company.
Their activities is also back by the laws of the state, thus, Ghana constitution grant them the permission to operate within their framework.Thus, the commercial private security sector was re-invigorated with a subsidiary legislation to give a more detailed, operational meaning to Act  , in 1994, 2001, 2011, and 2014, to changes in registration fees and license renewals.
According to LI 157, PSOs do not have the mandate to engage in any other activities apart from four main activities approved.These activities are; watching, guarding, patrolling and escorting.These are excepts from the interviews with the participants; "we do some operations both at the community level and at the household level.The law mandate us to guard the people, watch their properties, do some patrols in the communities and also we do escort worthy people or very important personality in the society at a fee." (IDI, Manager, 36) "apart from just watching peoples' properties, we do a lot but people just know that we just watch properties or houses, that's all.But that is not the case, we do guard people at their offices or homes and also escort people when there is the need to do so."(IDI, Manager, 42) "We are concerned with the security of people.We prevent crime and protect people and their properties."(IDI, Manager, 48)

The selection and recruitment process of PSOs
Recruiting and selecting the wrong candidates who are not capable come with a huge negative cost which businesses cannot afford.Thus, the overall aim of recruitment and selection within the organization is to obtain the number and quality of employees that are required to satisfy the strategic objectives of the organization, at minimal cost (Ofori & Aryeetey, 2011).
In view of this, almost all the participant claimed that they normally follow standards in recruiting their staff and others.Five of the participants stated that they normally identify a vacant in their organization, then depending on the requirement of that position, they may decide to recruit inside or outside.For the outside, they normally advertise through normal poster and social media.Applicants who qualified for the set requirements are short listed for an official interview and base on their performance, most of them are selected.However, some may also been sacked when found that they are not fit for the duty of the organization.
On the other hand, other participants normally they recruit their employees based on recommendation from employees, family and friends.After that, they do physical examination with few written one to test the person to identify their knowledge level, thinking capacity and fitness level.This finding is consistent with the views of that selection practices may include the following: application blank, references, psychological tests, interviewing, approval by the Supervisor and physical examination.
"As for us, we normally do some posters and post them at vantage point in town to get our prospect employees.From there, we do some interviews to reduce the numbers and later some 814 JTUS, Volume 1 No. 8 September 2023 fitness training as well as few written test.At least, our employees can read and write and also communicate in simple English language."(IDI, Manager, 46) "we have a standard recruitment and selection process that we We normally identify a vacant, advertise on it through posters and social media.Conduct initial interviews after short listing prospects who applied.They are taken through series of activities and finally the person or people interested to fill the vacant is selected."(IDI,Manager,36) "for recruitment and selection, normally, our people here come with people who are interested in our job and then we train those people and fill in the position when there is vacant.
Sometimes, people also bring their children or wards to be trained for such employment.We also pick it from there and train them and do some small test to see if they are fit for the job before we finally recruit them."(IDI, Manager, 52)

Training and capacity of PSOs in combating crime
Security issues are very sensitive.Therefore, it demands special training and capacity building of employees in order to live up to expectation.Data gathered on this shows that most of the participants (5) offer special training and capacity building courses for their employees.
However, it was revealed that the duration for these training and courses are very short for proper orientation and skills for their job.This is especially in the case of security personnel who guards people and properties.Two of the participants disclosed that they normally organize short training for them though is not enough but is believed that most employees learn much on the job when employed.On the other hand, 2 of the participants also claimed that they have a nice agreement with the national security who normally come in time to time to train their staff.
On capacity building and resources, it was only three participants that boast of having sophisticated machines and devices to track robbers or theft, stolen cars or properties, so surveillance for a whole day live on their machines and others.Almost all the participants have CCTV cameras and other security gadgets that they manned for companies and organizations for effective monitoring purposes.
Act 350 (1970) and L.I. 1571 (1992) do not specify categorically the mandatory training for employees of PSOs.However, certain clauses in LI 1571 may permit the minister of interior to prescribe compulsory training under supervision of a police officer.These are some quotes from some participants: "Yes, we use to organize intermittent training for our employees.The cost involved is not easy so sometimes, for the whole year, we can organize like once or twice for them.Also, for our new employees, we normally train them for a week or maximum two weeks then we assign them role to play and most learn on the job."(IDI, Manager, 36) "Yes, we train our people.We have special people who come and train them when there are new employees.Sometimes, through our own network, we can get some police officials any national security personnel to train them for us."(IDI, Manager, 42) "Yes, we give them serious training.Because of the nature of our work, they need to be trained as professionals in order to be able to execute their mandate or functions as expected.
Therefore, we organize training workshop for both old and new employees."(IDI, Manager, 50)

Collaboration between PSOs and Ghana Police Service in combating crime
PSOs was coined out of the inadequacy of the state police, therefore, their work is to supplement the work of the state police.In view of this, collaboration is necessary in fighting for the same goal, thus, to protect lives and properties and to fight against any form of crime.Data were gathered on this notion and the result shows that all the participants were in one way or the other in a form of collaboration with the Ghana Police Service.This is not surprise because most of the activities of PSOs are supervised by the Ghana Police, thus, the use of uniform, arms or raffle, training among others.
"For collaboration, it is a must.Because for the police itself cannot fight crime only so we all collaborate to fight a common enemy."(IDI, Manager, 36) "Yes, we collaborate a lot in our daily activities.Sometimes, there are some operations that you cannot do without their help.Therefore, we arrange with them and execute it nicely and professionally.(IDI, Manager, 52).

Challenges of PSOs in combating crime
There cannot be any organization without challenges, same applies to PSOs in Ghana.The key challenges of PSOs according to the data gathered from the participants included; financial constraint, inadequate resources, lack of regulatory body or cooperation among PSOs, poor perception of people on their operations among others.Four (4) of the participants said that their major problem were financial issues and resources to carry on their duties.In addition, 3 participants claimed that their problem has to do with association or cooperation, logistics as well as high cost of operations.
This finding confirms that of Oteng-Ababio et al., (2016) who found that a substantial proportion of households, particularly in low and middle-class neighbourhoods, viewed PSCs as not enhancing security and reducing crime but rather compromising household and neighbourhood crime fighting efforts, therefore, viewed PSCs as compromising household and community security.These were confirmed in an interview with some participants: "Yes, we have a lot of challenges my brother, it is not easy for us.But we have to do it like that because that is our job.Money is our utmost challenge.We are not sponsored or supported by anybody or institution, therefore, we run all our activities based on the fee we charge.So you JTUS, Volume 1 No. 8 September 2023 look, same money charge for a service, you use some to pay your workers, acquire some logistics, pay for rent and business staff so how much would be left you?" (IDI, Manager, 50) "I will say that our major challenge is that we don't have a body that regulate our activities and charges.Therefore, everybody do whatever that pleases them.Because if we have such body, at least, we can know how to charge similar or same, seek for government sponsorship and others."(IDI, Manager, 46) "we have some challenges.Most of these challenges have to do with finance, logistics and resources as well as poor perception of people about our business.Normally, people in the society think that we are not there to protect them but rather to condone criminal activities and even some believed that we you employ us, we will come to your house to inspect all your properties and then liase with the arm robbers to come and steal your properties.Look at all these so how would such people even enroll on your services for you to have money to finance your activities." (IDI, Manager, 36) "Yes, our major problem is money.We finance all our activities based on our charges, therefore, this makes our services charge also high and affordability becomes problem for some people.Due to this, people think that our services are only meant for the rich people which prevent a lot from coming to us for business."(IDI, Manager, 35)

CONCLUSION
Key security services provided by the PSOs included the four functions mandated by the laws of Ghana; provision of surveillance system, collaboration with the state security agencies for community protection, guard lives and properties.Also, their operations basically covers; watching and guarding services, patrolling services, and escort services.PSOs follow some form laid down procedures and principles in recruiting and selecting employees.PSOs have some collaboration with the Ghana Police Service with regards to its mandate enshrined by the constitution of Ghana to prevent crime and protect lives and properties.However, the key challenges of the PSOs are financial constraints, inadequate logistics and resources, high cost of operations as well as poor perception of the general public on their roles in fighting against crime as well as protecting lives and properties.
requiring active participation from the citizenry, including PSOs(UNODC & OSCE, 2006; Cullen &   Wilcox, 2010).Legally, the Constitution of Ghana mandates the citizenry to participate in the crime prevention and security management of the country (Articles 3.4[a]), 13.2[d], and 14.1).Thus, the law (Act 350[38], 1970) that establish the Police Service in Ghana also created room for participation by PSOs in crime prevention.Under a subsidiary legislation of L.I. 1571 (1992), the experiment of mainstreaming PSOs has been ongoing in Ghana for over 25 years.Nevertheless, there is dearth of empirical evidence on the role of PSOs in preventing crime, their operations as well as review to assess the capacity and resource of PSOs in carrying out their mandate.Is at the backdrop of this that this study seeks to fill the gap by examining the role of PSOs in preventing crime in Ghana.
350 (sub.38).Strengthened with a new legislative instrument (the Police Service Act, L.I. 1571[1992]), the formation of commercial PSOs, including operation and licensing regimes, were spelt out.L.I. 1571 (1992) repealed L.I. 751 (1972).It is this L.I. 1571 that currently serves as the legal framework for the management of formal PSOs in Ghana.It has operated for 25 years without any major review, except for four minor amendments